3. Red Imported Fire Ant records F.L.C. LIU et al. west (Fig. 1a). It is assumed that the drier conditions in the west and the colder temperatures in the north have slowed its spread; however, current global climate change predictions and urbanization trends will undoubtedly favor the expansion of this species. the red imported fire ant is a highly damaging invasive species and one of the world’s most costly invaders. It has been ranked as the 4th most economically damaging species and the 2nd most damaging arthropod (Angulo et al., 2022). Established populations have been reported in the United States, Mexico, the Caribbean, China, Taiwan, Australia and New Zealand (successfully eradicated) (Ascunce et al., 2011) and most recently Italy (Menchetti et al., 2023). Solenopsis invicta rapidly invades disturbed open habitats where it can reach extremely high densities and persist for generations as long as the habitat remains open. In its introduced range, it tends to favor disturbed sites including roadsides, agricultural fields, pastures, lawns, gardens and urban and suburban parks. Solenopsis invicta was introduced in the United States through the Port of Mobile, Alabama, sometime between 1933 and 1945 (Buren et al., 1974). With an estimated yearly migration rate of approximately 120 miles, colonies expanded rapidly through the southern United States (Kemp et al., 2000). At present, outdoor populations of this species have been reported throughout the southern United States, from Florida and Maryland in the east to California in the 3.2 Water-Resistant Bait Granular baits, composed of insecticides (active ingredients), vegetable oil (phagostimulants), and corn grit (carriers), are widely used for the control or eradication of the red imported fire ant (Williams et al., 2001). These baits offer several advantages, including efficient horizontal low repellency, reduced insecticide usage, ease of application and suitability for broadcast distribution (Oi & Oi, 2006). However, a major limitation of conventional fire ant granular baits is their vulnerability to moisture. Exposure to irrigation or rainfall can cause corn grit-based baits to clump, decompose and lose accessibility and palatability for ants, significantly reducing their effectiveness (Oi et al., 2022). To mitigate this issue, water-resistant carriers have been developed to improve bait durability in wet conditions. For instance, formulations using distillers dried grains with solubles as carriers have demonstrated enhanced hydrophobicity, maintaining high attractiveness to S. invicta while resisting moisture damage (Kafle et al., 2015). Although hydrophobic granular baits have been Fig. 1 Distribution of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (a), the Argentine ant, Linepithema humile (b), and the Asian needle ant, Brachyponera chinensis (c) in the continental United States. Maps are based entirely on outdoor records (Antmaps.org/ and new published and unpublished data). Temporary outdoor (no established populations) of S. invicta from Missouri are not shown. The base map is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported and available at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Blank_US_Map_(states_only)_2.svg. eradication, risks and unintended exposure (Hoffmann incomplete Indigenous to central South America, transfer within colonies, 172 grooming and necrophoresis to facilitate toxin transfer within colonies (Choe & Rust, 2008). Despite these improvements, residual insecticides have limitations, environmental including contamination to non-target organisms et al., 2016). Consequently, toxic baits have emerged as the main tool of invasive ant management (Klotz et al., 1997). Toxic baits exploit ants’ foraging and trophallactic behaviors to distribute insecticides throughout the colony, targeting larvae, nurse workers and queens. Conventional bait formulations, comprising attractants, carriers, additives and active ingredients, have been optimized following the ants’ dietary preferences. For example, sugary liquid baits effectively attract L. humile, which feeds primarily on honeydew and nectar (Rust et al., 2000), while protein- or oil-rich granular baits are better suited for S. invicta (Loke & Lee, 2004; Neff et al., 2011). However, baiting has inherent challenges, such as the slow-acting nature of toxicants, susceptibility to environmental degradation, and unintended attraction of non-target species (Zakharov & Thompson, 1998). Additionally, ants’ bait acceptance can be influenced by other factors such as formulation or particle size preferences, contaminants, pathogen/parasite infections and colony nutritional history (Josens et al., 2016; Hsu et al., 2018; Ipser & Gardner, 2019; Zanola et al., 2024). To address these limitations, recent research has focused on enhancing bait efficiency and exploring novel management strategies. 3.1 Current Status and Distribution
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