S.A. KHAN et al. decomposers to thrive on the excreta and food remnants (Wolters, 2000). The soil from ant nests also contains higher Ca+2, Mg+2, K+, and Na+ levels than the adjacent soils. As a result, plants such as Gardenia japonicus seedlings show three times more growth in ant nest soil (Lafleur et al., 2005). On the other hand, RIFA negatively impacts soil composition, causing soil erosion and sometimes destabilizing structures (Poorter & Browne, 2005). Solenopsis invicta decreases the pH and increases the potassium (K+) and phosphorus (P+) content in the nest soil compared to the adjacent soil (Xi et al., 2010). RIFA alters the nest soil’s physiochemical properties and bacterial communities across various habitats. These changes include increased pH nitrogen content, reduced levels of some heavy metals, and a significant increase in actinobacteria, which make the conditions favorable for the survival and reproduction of RIFA (Shi et al., 2023). Future research should focus on understanding the long-term impacts of S. invicta on soil health and ecosystem stability in invaded areas. 3.2.2 Plant-Insect Interactions and Pollination Networks Solenopsis invicta impacts plant-insect interactions and pollination networks, essential for biodiversity and ecosystem health. The aggressive behavior and predation of RIFA can reduce the diversity and abundance of pollinators, including bees, butterflies and other insects that are crucial for pollinating many plant species. These impacts can also lead to shorter visit durations and decreased number of flowers visited (Wu et al., 2015). In studies conducted in China, S. invicta altered insect populations in agricultural ecosystems significantly. For example, the abundance of flea beetles decreased by 59.4% and 43.5% in S. invicta only and S. invicta plus aphid plots, respectively (Wu et al., 2016). Additionally, the mutualistic interaction between S. invicta and aphids has negatively affected the abundance of two predatory hoverfly species by 39.4% (Wu et al., 2016). This reduction occurs because S. invicta protects aphids from natural enemies such as hoverflies, critical biological control agents. As a result, the hoverfly population decreases due to decreased prey availability (Wu et al., 2016). Conversely, the presence of S. invicta does not significantly impact the visitation rate or pollination efficiency of Apis cerana, a key native pollinator of Brassica napus (Wu et al., 2014). However, the visitation rate of the butterfly Pieris rapae to B. napus significantly decreased by 29.5 and 22.4% in plots with the presence of S. invicta only and S. invicta associated with aphids, respectively. Gas chromatography-electroantennograms showed that male P. rapae can detect the odors of S. invicta, particularly the cuticular hydrocarbons on the ants’ exoskeleton. However, whether this detection allows the We strongly recommend that research in China focus more on quantitatively establishing RIFA’s impacts on economically important species, rare and endangered animals, and other vertebrate species. It is important to note that in Hong Kong or Macao, the effect on forest species may be limited due to the absence of RIFA in those habitats. However, the RIFA invasion will likely have substantial direct and indirect impacts on wetlands and grasslands, many of which are used as bird breeding reserves. Therefore, target research in these vulnerable habitats is vital to understanding and mitigating potential damage. The invasion of S. invicta in China has not only affected the native biodiversity but also caused significant disruptions in different ecosystem processes, leading to long-term ecological consequences. Ant nests can significantly alter the soil’s nutrient concentration and nutrient cycling (Wagner & Jones, 2004), making the soil more productive and sustainable for plant growth than in surrounding areas (Rocha et al., 2024). Additionally, ants develop mutualistic associations with fungi, plants and micro-organisms, contributing to nutrient cycling (Mueller et al., 2011). Defossez et al. (2011) show that the nitrogen in food given to the ants was traced out in surrounding plants within four days of application. Ants impact the soil through various activities such as nest construction, waste deposition and food storage. Ant nests present higher relative humidity levels other inside, favorable creating conditions for 164 vertebrate species populations. Lin et al. (2006) provided an initial forecast, indicating that among 379 species listed in the “National Key Protected Wild Animal List” of China, about 41 vertebrate species are at risk from S. invicta, including 22 bird species (9.6%), all 18 reptile species (100%) and one amphibian species (14%). This forecast highlights the potential threat posed by S. invicta, but it is important to note that these predictions are purely based on a risk assessment rather than experimental results. Invasive ants are associated with the global decline of reptiles and, to a lesser extent, amphibians, whose deaths are primarily associated with the pathogens transferred by the ants (Gibbons et al., 2000), but specific data on the impacts of S. invicta on Chinese vertebrates are still limited. For instance, while Wang et al. (2024) review the effects of the RIFA invasion on vertebrate taxa at both individual and population levels, it is essential to note that almost all studies referenced in their review were conducted outside of China. The limited data from China suggest potential impacts on local vertebrate species, but more research is needed to confirm these predictions and ascertain the full extent of S. invicta’s ecological impacts in China. 3.2 Disruption of Ecosystem Processes 3.2.1 Soil Modification and Nutrient Cycling
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