2. Distribution and Spread of Solenopsis invicta in China S.A. KHAN et al. 2005). A higher haplotype diversity in Hong Kong compared initial to mainland China, suggests establishment in Hong Kong followed by its consequent spread to mainland China (He et al., 2006). The spread of S. invicta has been associated with multiple introductions starting from the 1990s, with numerous sources of origin having been identified (Ascunce et al., 2011; Lu, 2014). Since its establishment, numerous studies have focused on monitoring and predicting the spread and impacts of RIFA in China. In 2022, the Ministry of Agriculture in China reported 554 counties (covering 902528.8 km2 and representing 9.47% of China’s area) where RIFA was detected (Ministry of the Enironment Japan, 2022) (see Fig. 1), largely surpassing previous estimates of 364 counties forecasted for 2023 by Lu (2014). To our knowledge, at least 13 studies using data from local (Chen et al., 2023) to country (Wang et al., 2023) to global scales (Cao & Feng, 2024) have tried to predict the spread of S. invicta in China (Wang et al., 2022). Some have used mathematical models to quantify the number of counties to be affected (Lu, 2014), others have used species distribution models for current and future climate scenarios (Song et al., 2021), including additional factors such as the human influence index (Li et al., 2024) or normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) (Song et al., 2021). We overlay the presence of RIFA at the county level with the boundaries of the main studies predicting their potential distribution under current weather conditions (Fig. 1). Different suitable northern boundaries have been suggested, involving provinces, from Hunan and Zhejiang (Wang et al., 2023) to southern Hubei and Anhui (Song et al., 2021). Furthermore, certain areas as far north as Shandong have been identified as suitable habitats for S. invicta, although the risk of establishment and spread in these areas has remained very low (Wang et al. 2023). RIFA is widespread in the southern provinces but its distribution becomes more fragmented towards central China (Fig. 1). Its current spread, however, indicates that RIFA is being efficiently transported north (Lu, 2014) and able to establish itself well within suitable microhabitats (see Section 2.2). More recently, studies are the northern expansion of RIFA associated with climate change (Wang et al., 2022). Its spread northward could temperatures and changing increase due precipitation patterns, with an extension of suitable habitat allowing the species to colonize regions previously too cold and unsuitable for its survival (Wang et al., 2023). Considering its establishment in many counties in the southern part of the country (Fig. 1), the imminent invasion of S. invicta into northern Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam can also be predicted, if it is not already occurring. Native to South America, established RIFA populations were first detected in the United States in 1945 (Buren et al., 1974), in the West Indies in 1981 (Wetterer, 2013), in Australia and New Zealand in 2001 (Moloney & Vanderwoude, 2002), in Taiwan in 2003 (Ministry of Agriculture, 2005; Wylie et al., 2020), in mainland China in 2004 (Zeng et al., 2005), and in Hong Kong SAR and Macau SAR in 2005 (Hua, 2006; Zeng et al., 2005). More recently, in 2022, it was detected in Europe (Menchetti et al., 2023). Furthermore, it has been intercepted at ports and airports multiple times in Japan (29 May 2017) and South Korea (8 September 2017) (Murakami, 2018; Lyu & Lee, 2017). RIFA is easily transported in containers (Siddiqui et al., 2024), making trading hubs especially vulnerable to its introduction. For example, several interceptions in Japan have been linked to sources in major cities in China, such as Guangzhou or Hong Kong (Ministry of the Environment Japan, 2022). An extensive trade and transportation system facilitates the accidental transfer of RIFA. Border interceptions have found S. invicta mainly in containers, which had likely been in contact with the ground, but also with transported waste products and fruits (Yang et al., 2019). For instance, Japan reported a container with more than 70.000 individuals, including male and female workers (Ministry of the Environment Japan, 2022). The ecological plasticity of S. invicta to various environmental conditions helps it thrive and spread under transport, urban and natural conditions. Once introduced, it can establish nests under different habitat conditions ranging from open fields to urban lawns, bases of trees, and even in human settings (Wang et al., 2020). Once established, alate queens can disperse to suitable habitats up to 15 km from the source nest (Tschinkel, 2013). Nest mounds can be found in bare soil in which human-mediated disturbance is constant, including farmlands (Chan & Guénard, 2020), and trails can be seen among fishing ponds (Wong et al., 2020), in orchards (Lei et al., 2019), in containers (Lee, 2017), near human-made infrastructure (Christian, 2009) and in grassland habitats (Tschinkel, 2013). China In mainland China, a population of S. invicta was first detected in Wuchuan, Guangdong in 2004. The detection in Shenzhen and Guangzhou marked the beginning of its spread to other provinces (Zeng et al., increasingly to rising its investigating 160 these findings along with the current distribution to offer a localized perspective. Finally, this review concludes with a discussion of current management strategies with future directions for further research and effective management of S. invicta. 2.1 Current Distribution and Spread of RIFA in
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