70 figures to the total CO2 emissions of Southeast Asia in 2015 (1.3 billion tons CO2) are 0.036% and 0.056%, respectively. This section has provided estimates of materials used in automobiles and spare parts in Southeast Asia. It was estimated that 3.6 million tons of materials were used in automobiles in 2015 and for spare parts, 137,000 tons. Suppose about 20% of sub-components need to be replaced in remanufacturing with new sub-components. In that case, 80% of the material used in spare parts represents potential material-saving effects through automotive parts remanufacturing. For spare parts, reused parts and repaired parts are commonly used in the region today. However, as the economy grows in the area, brand-new spare parts may become more common (Matsumoto et al., 2018). It is vital to make the use of remanufactured spare parts widespread instead of encouraging use of brand-new spare parts. The material for spare parts (293,000 tons) accounts for about 5% of the total amount of materials in automobiles and spare parts. It should be seen that it is of great significance that 5% of materials used in a sector can be circulated through remanufacturing. The estimated results also indicate that the effects of using automobiles for a long time are also significant. A simplified calculation shows that if the average life of a car increases by 10% (used for 1.5–2 years longer), the demand for new vehicles will be reduced by 10%, which corresponds to 360,000 parts remanufacturing can also affect the long-term use of vehicles because availability of inexpensive and reliable remanufactured spare parts gives drivers an incentive to maintain and repair their cars, which leads to long-term use rather than replacement with new cars. of materials. Automotive tons There are several important issues regarding material use in the automotive sector. First, as it is often argued, there can be trade-offs between material saving and CO2 reduction. Prolonged use of cars can eliminate opportunities to replace CO2-inefficient cars with the Fig. 2 Barriers to remanufacturing. Source: Widera and Seliger, 2015 M. MATSUMOTO et al. latest CO2-efficient vehicles. Both the material and CO2 aspects should be adequately considered. Second, there can also be trade-offs between material saving and car safety. The average weight of a car has increased over the decades in the US (Mayyas et al., 2017) and in Europe (Allwood & Cullen, 2015). There are several reasons for this trend, one of which is that car weights have increased to improve the safety of cars. If it is challenging to save materials on account of safety issues in automobiles, long-term use and circulation are even more critical. Third, promoting the use of secondary materials in automobiles may have a significant material-saving effect. In the automobile sector, there is plenty of room for material recycling. Forth, as a long-term trend, internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles will be replaced by EVs. Adopting remanufacturing and circulation for EVs and EV spare parts will be a significant challenge. The barriers to remanufacturing are mainly derived from the difficulty of integrating products issued from a circular manufacturing process into a business ecosystem dedicated to maximizing the number of products from traditional linear systems in the market. Figure 2 presents the perceived barriers to remanufacturing from the point of view of a manufacturing company (Widera & Seliger, 2015). Typically, there are four categories of barriers to remanufacturing (Fig. 2; UNEP-IRP, 2018). They include: (1) core acquisition barriers, (2) technological barriers, (3) market barriers (product sales barriers (Fig. 2)), and (4) regulatory barriers. The technological barriers include a lack of technical solutions for optimizing material and information flows. The market barriers refer to a range of obstacles, the major ones of which include: 1) original equipment manufacturers’ undertake remanufacturing, and 2) consumers’ non-acceptance of hesitation (OEMs’) to 2.8 Discussion 3.1 Barriers to Remanufacturing 3. Discussion: Market Barriers for Automotive Parts Remanufacturing
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