to market depending on the conditions under which cars are used. The factors can include: the average age of the car stock the market, road conditions, climate conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.), quality of original components and so on. The available data for spare parts are limited. For reference, Table 5 shows the result of the authors’ survey (web questionnaire survey) on drivers’ experiences with repairing or replacing alternators or starters in six countries. The percentage of drivers who had experienced the need for repair or replacement was relatively high in the four Southeast Asian countries (50.2% in Malaysia to 74.8% in Vietnam), and it was also high in the US (55.6%) and low in Japan (11.3%). Although demand for spare parts may differ and change depending on conditions in the future (either increasing or decreasing), the estimates in Fig. 1 present a potential. Source: Authors’ web-questionnaire survey of car owners in these six Notes: The survey in the US was conducted in November 2014. The surveys in the other five countries were conducted in January 2017. In the surveys in Indonesia and Thailand, the authors overlooked inclusion of the answer option of “I don’t know”. Table 5 Drivers’ experiences with repairs/replacements of Asia Globally, countries. alternators or starters. Have you ever repaired or replaced an alternator or starter (A/S) in your car, including the A/S of your current car and/or your previous cars? Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Vietnam Japan US N=500 N=500 N=500 N=500 N=600 N=500 in the automotive parts remanufacturing industry is one of the largest remanufacturing sectors. It is the second-largest sector in the EU after the aerospace sector (ERN, 2015) and is the third-largest in the US after the aerospace and heavy-duty & off-road (HDOR) equipment sectors (USITC, 2012). In the aftermarket for automotive alternators and for example, remanufactured parts comprise 90% in the US (Frost & Sullivan, 2011) and EU (Bobba et al., 2021), and about 50% in Japan (Matsumoto et al., 2018). In Southeast Asia, reuse (or direct reuse) and repair are much more common than remanufacturing today. Generally, repair is more artisanal and labor-intensive than remanufacturing. In a long-term trend, as the country’s economy develops and income and wage levels of the country rise, repairs are more likely to be replaced by remanufacturing (Matsumoto et al., 2018). The growth levels of automotive parts remanufacturing industries vary from country to country in Southeast Asia. The industry in Estimating the Potential Material-saving Effects of Automotive Parts Remanufacturing starters, I don’t know Yes 66.2% 50.2% 64.8% 74.8% 11.3% 55.6% No 33.8% 39.6% 35.2% 20.4% 61.7% 38.8% 10.2% 4.8% 27.0% 5.6% - - Malaysia is growing (Yusop et al., 2016), whereas Vietnam does not have an identified remanufacturing industry yet (Guidat et al., 2017). The Malaysian government is also active in supporting the development of a promising remanufacturing sector within a local hub for remanufacturing (Yusop et al., 2016; Matsumoto et al., 2021). In Indonesia, the industry is still in a very early stage of development. Fatimah et al. (2013) describe remanufacturers as not very effective at producing remanufactured parts. The Indonesian government strictly restricts the import of used capital goods, which could partially limit the growth of the industry in that country (Matsumoto et al., 2021). Overall, in Southeast Asia, automotive parts remanufacturing is most likely to continue to grow in the coming decades, and the governments and industry should also support its growth to enhance the circularity of products. potential We also estimated that remanufacturing has 65% contribution tons and 110,000 the potential effects of remanufacturing on reducing CO2 emissions. First, the CO2 emissions from manufacturing 203,000 tons of new spare parts (in 2015) and 314,000 tons of new spare parts (in 2030; Fig. 1) were estimated. The emissions were calculated at 629,000 tons of CO2, and 974,000 tons of CO2, respectively. The inventory data from the previous study (Tahara et al., 2001) was used in the calculation. Second, the CO2 saving effects of remanufacturing were considered. Extant studies indicate that remanufacturing saves 85% of energy use (Kim et al., 2008), and 66–78% of global warming potential (GWP) (Bobba et al., 2020) when compared with new parts manufacturing. Assuming remanufacturing saves 75% of CO2 emissions compared to new parts manufacturing, using 203,000 tons of remanufactured spare parts in 2015 and 314,000 tons in 2030 (Fig. 1) instead of using brand-new spare parts would save emissions of 472,000 tons of CO2 and 731,000 tons of CO2, respectively. The ratios of these automotive of 69 2.5 Automotive Parts Remanufacturing in Southeast 2.6 Potential Material Saving Effects of Automotive Parts Remanufacturing In remanufacturing, 65% to 95% of subcomponents on a weight basis are reused (Kim et al., 2008; Fatimah et al., 2013; UNEP-IRP, 2018; Bobba et al., 2020), This indicates to 95% material-saving effects compared with brand-new parts manufacturing (manufacture of parts using only new subcomponents). Conservatively assuming that remanufacturing has an 80% material-saving effect, the parts remanufacturing in saving materials overall and steel itself would be 162,000 tons, respectively in 2015, and 251,000 tons and 170,000 tons, respectively, in 2030. These amounts of steel correspond to 0.13% of the steel used in Southeast Asia in 2015, and 0.13% of the steel to be used in the region in 2030. 2.7 Potential CO2-Saving Effects
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