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support product design processes. Although they are useful independently, more effective utilization of local information can be realized by combining them. As local characteristics, function-structure mapping data on a local product, information related to that local product, the physical environment of the living-sphere and satisfiers of human needs are reflected in the FSM, EFSM, MP environment and SD method, respectively. Fig. 2 Schematic of the extended function-structure map. (EFSM).Fig. 1 Proposed framework for locally-oriented product design.Before product design goes ahead, an EFSM and MP environment are developed by a design engineer, field observer, field expert and system developer. For development of the EFSM, an FSM of the reference product in the target region is compiled based on reverse engineering (Otto & Wood 1998) by a design engineer. The FSM comprises a method of describing a product and is widely used in functional analysis for clarifying the decomposed function and structure trees of a product and for visualizing the relationship between sub-functions and components (Pahl & Beitz, 1988). Reverse engineering initiates the redesign process in which a product is predicted, observed, disassembled, analyzed, tested, “experienced” and documented its functionality, form, physical principles, manufacturability and ease of assembly (Wood et al. 2001). Here, a design engineer collects information about not only the FSM but A Framework for Locally-oriented Product Design terms of in also data from actual experience. Then, related local information and a product usage profile are selected and linked to a product sub-function and component of the FSM by a design engineer (Fig. 2). This information link provides evidence for the function or structure of the reference product. The EFSM supports recognition and ideation, focusing on specific regional or local characteristics by visualizing the relationship between critical local information and the related function and/or component (Sugita et al., 2017). In other words, the EFSM is a tool for applying indigenous knowledge to product design based on engineering. Local In the process of evaluating product design, evaluators experience product use cases in an MP environment, which involves subjective evaluation using the semantic differential (SD) method (Osgood et al., 1957). A living space where the target product is used in daily life is reproduced in the MP environment. This tangible prototypes of real environment comprises products and the evaluator’s sense of agency. It allows for visual observation through a head-mounted display and also evaluation of the workload associated with the movement of the evaluator’s body and tactile sensation while using the product. Based on the local information obtained from field observations, a typical living space in the observed target region is reconstructed in a VR space created to the same scale as that of the real space. In addition, the evaluator’s limbs are reproduced in the VR space, and their movement reflects the movement of the evaluator’s actual hands and feet in the real space. In the real space, simplified physical prototypes that the evaluator can touch are placed in the same positions as those of the products created in the VR space. The virtual models are overlaid on the physical prototypes, and MP enables the evaluator to experience motion, load and a sense of touch that approximate reality. After completing the experience, the evaluators rate the impression of their experience by assigning scores for pairs of evaluation criteria. The SD method measures the psychological attributions of an individual’s attitude toward something. It focuses on the connotative meaning of objects, events and concepts, and is suitable for measuring emotional and behavioral aspects of an information is collected in living environment, the their virtual models through field observations by a field expert before development of the EFSM and MP environment. In field observations, an observer collects local information, focusing on usage of all products including descriptions in natural language, interviews with locals and photography/video filming. Furthermore, satisfiers, as defined by Max-Neef, are identified in needs-based workshops held in the target area (Kobayashi, et al., 2019). Each satisfier is described in natural language and tends to satisfy fundamental human needs. to increase 45

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