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38 workforce shortages in urban areas and an increase in migrant workers (Rattanapan, 2015). Availability of a cheap labor force (i.e., migrant workers) both enables and impedes SCP patterns; for example, proper protection of migrant workers is often insufficient and long-term poverty is a possibility. Such disparities occur geographically. According to Kawabata (2005), regional disparities in Southeast Asia have formed a mosaic pattern rather than a monotonically changing pattern. Coexistence of different levels of development and their geographical distribution/pattern thus can be a local characteristic in Southeast Asia. Oizumi (2011) pointed out another example of local characteristics of government: increased taxation is a key to development in rural areas in Asia because funding is required, whereas decreased taxation is a key concept of development in urban areas because of market competition.  Religion is also a in people’s behaviors. Several revenue Various existing regulations can hinder or promote adoption of new SCP patterns. Ride hailing/sharing services such as Uber and Grab are not popular in Japan because it is difficult for new service providers to fulfill the requirements of the Road Transportation Act and the Passenger Vehicle Transportation Business Act. Collection and recycling of end-of-life vehicles are promoted by the automobile tax structure and the Automobile Recycling Act in Japan, whereas they are hindered in countries without similar regulations or laws. Other examples of regulations hindering or promoting adoption of new standards include the following: Halal standards set by the Malaysian government prohibit the reuse of packaging materials previously used on non-Halal products, and regulations for food contact containers in Thailand prevent bottle-to-bottle recycling of PET resin. People’s mindsets affect their relationships with the government and public policy as well as people’s compliance with public policy. As noted in Chapter 2, local characteristics in Southeast Asia include a mixture of traditional and secular, an acceptance of inequality (a high power distance), a level of local/regional characteristic affecting CP patterns. For example, religion can trigger changes in Thailand are calling on believers to donate secondhand goods and recyclable waste. The collected secondhand goods and recycled resources are sold to dealers and recyclers. The temple maintenance and other contributions to society, such as scholarships for the poor. The Indonesian Ulema Council, Indonesia’s top Muslim clerical body, has organized a campaign to use reusable bags to reduce the number of single-use plastic bags in collaboration with Greenpeace and the Ministry of Forestry and Environment (Nugraha & Purwaningsih, 2018). temples then used for is relatively low T. TASAKI and M. KOJIMA self-expression, a high-context culture, relationship-based trust, low uncertainty avoidance, holism and a preference for real practices over transcendental theory/rules. By reflecting upon these tendencies, we came upon the following policy traditional authoritarian view places importance on the government. People therefore tend to follow what the government decides, and government officials tend to perceive a low need for public participation in policy decisions as compared to Western countries. SCP policy can thus be stringent; however, the goals of SCP policy can deviate from people’s needs, and policy decisions may not fit stakeholders’ situations. Second, people tend to neglect impractical rules and to use double standards. This is a tactic of respecting authority while practicing one’s own life and business. Implementation of SCP policy in this sense can be problematic in Southeast Asia. In addition, a high-context culture does not help explain whether a person or institution will comply or not with any given policy. Third, insufficient institutionalization, which is typically observed in developing countries, increases a government’s difficulty in putting policy decisions into force. The size and capabilities of municipalities in Southeast Asia are still small. It is therefore difficult to introduce the same municipal policy used in developed countries in these areas. There is often a preference to adopt an ambitious policy agenda without considering its local feasibility. Aid receivers in the context of international cooperation can urge governments to accept a donor’s preferred policy. In addition, rivalries between ministries and agencies tend to lead them to pursue new policy areas where the governing institution has yet to be determined. Trust between industries and government can be weak in Southeast Asia. As noted previously, governments often make policy decisions without consulting industries. In addition, policy decisions are often not followed up with implementation. Moreover, some industries do not view the domestic market as important if it is small, and international cooperation influences policy decisions. Thailand is an example of a country where relationships with inter-ministry coordination are relatively good. industries and Business enterprises are also important actors for SCP, and business activities have drawn more attention, especially since the SDGs were agreed upon. In a study about corporate environmental management in Japan, Thailand and Vietnam (Yagi & Kokubu, 2021), the most important stakeholders were buyers and investors in Japan, whereas they were the community and employees in Thailand and Vietnam. That is, community-oriented management was observed in these Southeast Asian countries. This characteristic is in line with the cultural position the Inglehart–Welzel’s cultural map where its position is in between traditional values and secular-rational values. In implications. First, and Vietnam of Thailand the on 3.2 Policy-related Local/Regional Characteristics

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