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  globalization have made a variety of cuisines available. Climate also leads people to use more air-conditioning and energy, which is a concern of the IEA (2019). The use of air conditioners has spread to rural areas where traditional stilt houses can still be found, and even though people in rural areas tend to limit the time and period of use, younger generations tend to use air conditioners more than their elders (Yoshida et al., 2020). People in Southeast Asia regard cooling as a luxury and tend to set the temperature low. Kawabata (2005) explained features of markets in Southeast Asia as follows: there are no seasonal markets; clothing shops do not have to adjust their inventory as the seasons change (i.e., there are no winter clothes); people avoid walking even short distances (150 m is the average size of the trading area of convenience stores in Manila, whereas it is 500 m in Japan); and shopping centers with air conditioners are not just for shopping, but rather they are part of the urban space for daily life. Fig. 1 Model of the relationships between CP (consumption and production) patterns and SCP (sustainable consumption and production) policy, including their constituents (in ovals). Local/regional characteristics influence all the constituents as shown by the double arrows. providing Businesses products/services Regional/Local Characteristics in Southeast Asia repair markets, a typical regional characteristic of developing countries, influences possible CP patterns there. Kobayashi and Fukushige (2018) proposed a “living-sphere approach” to incorporate region-specific satisfiers for basic needs into product design. Availability of infrastructure can limit or expand the number and producers/providers can use. For example, in urban areas, public transportation infrastructure is very important. If public transportation is limited, citizens are likely to use automobiles and motorcycles, which may cause road congestion and increase carbon dioxide and other pollutant emissions. Without mass public transportation infrastructure, in an environmentally friendly manner in large urban areas. The same can be applied to electricity. Availability of environmentally friendly electricity is needed for a city to transform its SCP patterns. The percentage of energy-efficient housing stock in an area also determines the level of energy consumption in a city. Digital infrastructure can serve as an enabler for digitalized CP patterns such as servicizing and sharing, and digital connection quality is a determinant of such CP patterns. Participants in the workshops mentioned in Section 2.4 discussed not only conventional kinds of infrastructure (e.g., roads and waste collection systems) but also alternative types that would be able to support new SCP patterns and lifestyles. Examples were roads for specific purposes such as walking and bicycling, open public spaces, and digital infrastructure such as online platforms and digital currency. Infrastructure transformation is thus important for SCP. and technology can be localized and regionalized; that is, they are directly influenced by local characteristics. For example, people living in rural areas in Southeast Asia have more contact with the soil in their daily life, and washing machines sold in rural areas have equipment for hand-washing clothing on the top (Watanabe et al., 2019). Street food venders enable people to eat out casually and support dual-earner families (c.f., Trafialek et al., 2017). Existing businesses’ attitude towards competition or co-existence with new businesses is an important type of local/regional characteristic in forming a CP pattern. For example, conflicts between taxi businesses and new ride hailing/sharing services such as Uber and Grab and other mobility services prevent emergence of a new CP pattern (c.f., Ackaradejruangsri, 2015; Narupiti, 2019). Existence of an informal sector and relatively large secondhand and Rapid economic growth and the resulting regional disparities constitute underlying regional characteristics in Southeast Asia. Compressed development, a term coined and characterized by Whittaker et al. (2010), resulted in of options that it is difficult consumers to commute 37

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