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34 former communist government, respectively. Furthermore, Inoguchi and Fujii (2013) categorized 28 Asian countries into five groups based on factor analyses. The three factors used for the categorization were: materialist (consisting of housing, standard of living, household income, education and job), post-materialist (friendship, marriage, neighbors, family life, leisure and spiritual life), and public-sphere (public safety, condition of the environment, social welfare system and democratic system). Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar were in the group of countries whose primary factor was materialist and whose secondary factor was the public-sphere. The Philippines was the sole country whose primary factor was post-materialist and secondary factor was the public-sphere. In both of these two groups, the states exercise strong power and have the potential to influence SCP policy. Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam were categorized as countries with salient post-materialist features. Table 3 Differences in purchasing behavior of four generations in three Southeast Asian countries. Retrieved from Macromill (2020a–c) and summarized by the authors. Generation Baby boomers (founders of modern Thailand), born 1940–1964, prudent shoppers Generation X (political instability generation), born 1965–1979, strong consumer motivation and conspicuous consumers, open to buying online but prioritize the opinions of families/friends Millennials, also known as Generation Y (technology generation), born 1980–1999, hybrid of Internet and real consumers Generation Z (uninterested generation), born after 2000, native digital consumers 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Some scholars have studied regional/local differences other than cultural ones. These include differences in demographics, family type, context, governance and other subjective factors as explained below. Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik and Warner (2014) summarized demographic variables used to compare different countries. Suggested variables were sex, age, legal marital status, education, employment, household size and household income. Esteve and Liu (2013) described a steady decline in household size in Asia from 1980. According to PRB (2020), household size was still relatively large at 4.1 persons/household in 2019, as compared to 2.4 and 2.6 persons/household in Europe and North America, respectively. Extended (large) families are more common in Southeast Asia. Macromill (2020a, b, c) elucidated differences between generations (age groups) in purchasing behavior in Thailand, Indonesia and consensual in Southeast Asia union, ethnicity, Thailand T. TASAKI and M. KOJIMA Indonesia Independence War generation, born 1945–1964, seek supplementary income, frugal Orde Bal era generation (Suharto System generation), born 1965–1974, not thrifty but spend conservatively, potentially high spending Millennials, born 1975–1998, use services rather than things, digitally friendly Generation Z, born 1998–2002, self-centered and impulsive consumption behavior, technology savvy, digital natives Vietnam (Table 3). Although differences exist in people’s ages in the generational categories, many commonalities can be seen among the members of the same generation. Hantrais (2007) put forward the most frequently examined contexts in comparative research. These are political institutions, administrative structure, economic system, legal framework, social institutions and structures, social protection system, the physical environment and information cultural environment and socio-demographic variables. Kawabata (2005) asserted seven contexts in which to consider retail businesses in Southeast Asia. These were climate, race/population, religion, market distribution, history, policy and income. Family systems form the basis of society. Todd (1999) categorized family structure in different countries into seven liberal or authoritarian for the relationship between parents and children (and equal or unequal among siblings) and acceptance of internal marriage. More authoritarian (or high power distance from Table 1) is a family characteristic in Asia, and Todd classified families in Japan and Korea as stem families (authoritarian families with unequal siblings) and those in China and Vietnam as community families (authoritarian families with equal siblings). Families in Southeast Asian countries such as Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, the Philippines and Myanmar were categorized as anomic families, somewhere between liberal and authoritarian. Itao and Kaneko (2020) demonstrated through the use of a simulation model that countries with stem and community families corresponded to countries with social democracy and communism, respectively. The World Bank publishes a set of governance indicators ranging from −2.5 to 2.5 (the world average is zero). Governance is related to policy adoptability, which is an important factor of policy transfer failure (Minkman et al., 2018). Table 4 shows six indicators for several Southeast Asian countries. The average of the voice and technology in types based on War era generation, born up to 1976, stable-minded and prudent Doi Moi era generation (Generation X), born 1976–1989, strong consumer motivation and conspicuous consumers, prefer multinational brandsMillennials (free trade era), born 1990–1999, preference for product functionality and green products Post-Millennials (Generation Z), born after 2000, practical and technology savvy, driven by price and convenience addition to two axes: Vietnam 2.2 Other Regional/Local Differences

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