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(acceptance of unequal power distribution), individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, and indulgence (against restraint). Table 1 shows index values for these six dimensions for Southeast Asian countries as compared to the world average. These countries tend to have notably higher power distance values, stronger collectivism) and lower uncertainty avoidance values than the world average. The uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation values, however, are relatively diverse. Table 2 Kosaka’s dichotomization of Western and Eastern philosophy (Kosaka, 2008; summarized and translated by the authors). Philosophical motivation Realism Tendency to think separately With and without Positive and negative Inner and outer Data retrieved from Geerthofstede.com (2015), with averages calculated by the authors. East Asian countries are presented at the bottom for reference. individualism values lower Other researchers and practitioners have also made efforts to elucidate cultural differences. Meyer (2014) presented differences: communicating (low-context (simple and clear) vs. high-context (messages are between the lines)), evaluating (direct negative feedback vs. indirect negative feedback), persuading (principles-first vs. applications-first), leading (egalitarian vs. hierarchical), deciding (consensual vs. top-down), trusting (task-based vs. relationship-based), disagreeing (confrontational vs. avoiding confrontation), and scheduling flexible-time). For example, Americans, Australians and Netherlanders are low context while Japanese, Korean, and Indonesian are high context. Negative feedback tends to be direct for Russians, whereas it is indirect for Japanese, Thai and Table 1 Hofstede’s six indices of national culture and their values in Southeast Asia. Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Avg. σ Difference from world avg. World average Japan China South Korea eight scales (linear-time vs. Power distance Individualism78 100 94 74 64 70 80 ±14 (21) 59 54 80 60 Theoretical interests Tendency to think metaphysically Reductionism Thought of existence. The concept of “nothing” means to lack (something). Affirmation of human nature Nature should not be undeveloped Regional/Local Characteristics in Southeast Asia (i.e., of cultural Indonesian people. Trust to be based on relationships in India, China, Thailand, and Japan. People in Indonesia, Japan, and Thailand to avoid confrontation while those in Singapore tend to be between confrontation and avoiding confrontation. Kosaka (2008) explained differences between the West and the East. As shown in Table 2, practical, adjustable, holistic and less self-centered features of the East are described. Koren (1994) also pointed out differences between the modernized Western thinking and an Eastern way of thinking, a so-called wabi-sabi perspective. The differences respectively contrast logical and intuitive, absolute and relative, mass-produced and one-of-a-kind, faith in progress and no progress, control over nature and the uncontrollability of nature, adapting to machines and adapting to nature (in this group, the second element of each pair is a feature of the Eastern way). The AsiaBarometer survey is the largest comparative survey in Asia and focuses on the daily lives of ordinary people based on the bottom-up principle (Inoguchi & Fujii, 2013). Inoguchi (2005) used principal component analysis on data from 10 countries and identified three major dimensions: (1) general in merit-based utility, and (3) trust in the social system. He asserted that the results were related to (1) a Confucian heritage, (2) English speaking, and (3) communist or Index value (0 to 100)Masculinity 14 26 32 20 20 20 22 ±6 (−23) 45 46 20 18 46 50 64 48 34 40 47 ±10 (−2) 49 95 66 39 West Uncertainty avoidance Long-term orientation 48 36 44 8 64 30 38 ±19 (−29) 67 92 30 85 tends tend trust, (2) trust Indulgence 62 41 27 72 32 57 48 ±18 (3) 45 88 87 100 38 57 42 46 45 35 44 ±8 (−2) 45 42 24 29 East Practical interests in life Tendency to think intrinsically Holism Thought of nothingness. “Nothing” can take any form and is not negative. Denial of human acts Humans should follow nature 33

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