2.1 Cultural Differences 32 an enabling tool). SCP policy has tended to take a universal or context-free position. For example, the United Nations Environment Assembly did not mention local or regional characteristics in its resolution on SCP (UNEA, 2019). In the field of policy science, Dolowitz and Marsh (2000) discussed types of policy transfer and the reasons behind transfer. They also distinguished three types of failure in policy transfer: uninformed and inappropriate transfer. Failures caused by uninformed transfer are caused by biased/insufficient information about a transferred policy. Incomplete transfer occurs when important elements of a transferred policy are neglected. Inappropriate transfer results when not enough attention is paid to different values and contextual factors (cultural, political and/or economic) as well as the aims of policy targeted at a transferred area. Combinations of the three types of failure are also possible. Consideration of regional or local characteristics is therefore important to prevent failures in SCP policy, too. Minkman et al. (2018) constructed a detailed conceptual framework of policy transfer and identified groups of factors and subfactors related to policy transfer. These include the environment (circumstances of policy transfer) and adoptability, which consists of suitability (institutional fit and flexibility of policy), (adopting) capacity, (policy) resources, and ability to change policy course. However, concrete regional and to be considered in SCP policy transfer in the Asian context. the increase of policy transfer, local characteristics have yet In this study, we therefore reviewed literature related to cultural and geographical (local/national/regional) differences and discussed important factors that could affect SCP patterns in Southeast Asia taking the societal approach. The structure of this article is as follows. In Chapter 2, we review literature about cultural and geographical differences. We also look at specific examples of regional, national or local characteristics (hereinafter, “local characteristics”) from workshops about consumption and production (CP) patterns in Southeast Asia (Tasaki et al., 2021). In Chapter 3, we discuss important localities that influence SCP patterns in Southeast Asia based on the insights from the previous two chapters. Chapter 4 is the conclusion. 2. Literature Review on Cultural and referred First, we reviewed studies about cultural differences. Cultural differences between different geographical areas have been pointed out by many practitioners and would appear to be the most important difference. The meaning of culture is, however, complex and its definition is diverse. For example, according to Kroeber and transfer, incomplete collectively as to T. TASAKI and M. KOJIMA Kluckhohn (1952), who reviewed 164 definitions of culture and extracted the central idea, culture “consists of patterns, explicit or implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values.” As the definitions made by scholars (c.f., Kluckhohn, 1951; Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1952, Geertz, 1973; Kronenfeld, 2008; and Kronenfeld, 2018) denote, culture is a dynamically formulated pattern inherited and transmitted over a long time. The definition of culture is thus abstract, so we need to proceed to literature that more concretely explains cultural differences. An early study that addressed cultural differences is Hall and Hall’s Understanding Cultural Difference (1990). They compared three different cultural worlds based on their understanding that culture is communication, and identified common (categories): speed of messages (e.g., a headline is a fast message and a poem is a slow message), context in communication (high or low; how much information is enough to convey), space (e.g., wide or narrow personal space/territory), and time (monochronic or polychronic [doing many things at the same time]; past-, present-, or future-oriented). They also pointed out differences in terms of being fast or slow to respond to and interface with different cultures. Research groups led by Ronald Inglehart and Geert Hofstede conducted intensive global surveys. The World Value Survey (WVS) founded by Inglehart has been investigating social, political, economic, religious and cultural values of people throughout the world since 1981. The latest (seventh) ongoing survey covers 80 countries. The famous “Inglehart–Welzel cultural map” has two major axes of cross-cultural variation—traditional values versus secular-rational values (the vertical axis) and survival values versus self-expression values (the horizontal axis). It is based on their concept of two major modernization processes: secularization of authority and emancipation of authority (Inglehart & Welzel, 2005). The latest map (WVS Association, 2020) shows that Asian countries are located around the center of the horizontal axis, between many Western countries on the right and orthodox European and African-Islamic countries on the left. A difference among Asian countries is that East Asian countries such as Japan and South Korea are located in secular areas, while other countries from the southeast to west are located in between secular and traditional. That is, Southeast Asian countries are characterized as having weak self-expression and a mixture of secular and traditional values. Hofstede’s cultural survey originated threads including from a personnel survey at an international company, IBM, and was then extended. Hofstede et al. (2010) asserted six dimensions of national culture: power distance Geographical Differences
元のページ ../index.html#38